Action Centred Leadership Model

    John Adair is a renowned leadership theorist. He devised his Action Centred Leadership Model following observations of leaders and their followers during the 1970s. Adair captured his theory in a 3 circle diagram; in which each of the circles overlapped.

    


    

    The three overlapping circles illustrate that each of the functions are interdependent. This is because individuals make up teams, teams/individuals complete tasks and without a task there is no need for a team or individual. If one element is missing or weak then the other elements will suffer. For example if the team is weak then the task will suffer and one weak individual can affect team performance and subsequently task completion. Adair said that leaders should therefore concentrate on:

    * Task Completion (achieve the task)
    * Creating and sustaining a group of people that work together as a team (build and sustain a team) and
    * Development of individuals within the team (develop the individual).


    Adair stated that the three objectives (above) can be achieved through the following actions. These are often referred to as leadership functions. Defining all tasks so that goals and objectives are SMART (Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic and Time-Constrained). see www.learnmarketing.net/smart.htm

    Regular team briefings so that the team are aware of tasks and progress. Team briefings are a form of communication and can therefore be used to motivate the team.

    Motivating is a key leadership function because successful and efficient task completion is dependant on motivated teams.

    Organising: If a leader does not organise the task and team resources will be wasted and efficiency compromised.

    Planning: Tasks need to be planned so that both the team and leader are aware of objectives, timescales and individual responsibilities. Planning should include contingencies to cater for unexpected events include testing of the plans.

    A leader should constantly evaluate prior to, during and after events. This should include an evaluation of performance, training for individuals and lessons from previous experiences.

    A leader needs to control a number of areas including maintaining overall control of the project, implementation of good control systems, and they need to possess self control. A leader also needs to delegate tasks effectively and monitor the teams skills to increase efficiency and “value for money”. Adair believed that “excellent leader” achieved maximum results through the use of minimum resources.
    Lead by example: If a leader does not lead by example this will affect their credibility and influence. If a team do not believe that their leader believes in the their objectives then they will lose motivation and focus.

    Adair firmly believed that leadership can be taught and that a person can become a successful leader through effectively applying the action centred leadership model. This opinion was a departure from the other theories prevailing at the time (1960s) which stated that people are born with leadership characteristics and therefore leadership cannot be taught. Nowadays Adair’s theory is either criticised for being “too simple” and branded as outdated, or welcomed by those who feel that it’s simplicity and practicality render it timeless

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Elton Mayo’s Hawthorn experiments

Elton Mayo’s team conducted a number of experiments involving six female workers. These experiments are often referred to as the Hawthorne experiments or Hawthorne studies as they took place at The Hawthorne Works of the Western Electric Company in Chicago.

Over the course of five years, Mayo’s team altered the female worker’s working conditions and then monitored how the working conditions affected the workers morale and productivity. The changes in working conditions included changes in working hours, rest brakes, lighting, humidity, and temperature. The changes were explained to the workers prior to implementation.

At the end of the five year period, the female worker’s working conditions, reverted back to the conditions before the experiment began. Unexpectedly the workers morale and productivity rose to levels higher than before and during the experiments.

The combination of results during and after the experiment (ie the increase in the workers productivity when they were returned to their original working conditions) led Mayo to conclude that workers were motivated by psychological conditions more than physical working condition. He also concluded that workers were motivated by more than self interest and instead the following applied:

    * There is an unwritten understanding between the worker and employer regarding what is expected from them; Mayo called this the psychological contract.



    * A worker’s motivation can be increased by showing an interest in them. Mayo classified studying the workers (through the experiments) as showing an interest in the workers.



    * Work is a group activity, team work can increase a worker’s motivation as it allows people to form strong working relationships and increases trust between the workers. Work groups are created formally by the employer but also occur informally. Both informal and formal groups should be used to increase productivity as informal groups influence the worker’s habits and attitudes.



    * Workers are motivated by the social aspect of work, as demonstrated by the female workers socialising during and outside work and the subsequent increase in motivation.



    * Workers are motivated by recognition, security and a sense of belonging.



    * The communication between workers and management influences workers’ morale and productivity. Workers are motivated through a good working relationship with management.

Leadership Power

An essential part of leadership or management is to influence the people you manage so that they do what you want them to do. The influence of a leader will depend on a variety of factors including their personality and of those around them. For the purposes of this article we will refer to the people that the leader is managing or leading as followers. The influence of a leader over his followers is often referred to as power. Below we will explore the different types of power a leader may have.


Reward Power


This type of influence is created when the leader is able to offer a reward to his followers for completing tasks/behaving in a certain manner. Rewards in the workplace can take a variety of forms from chocolates, gift vouchers and holidays to promotions, commission and pay rises. This reward will only be effective if ;

Firstly - the reward appeals to the followers. As you are aware there is no point offering chocolate as a reward to somebody that likes crisps. This is because they will not view chocolate as a reward, so there is no incentive to complete the task.

Secondly – the followers have to believe that the leader will give them (or arrange for them to receive) the reward promised once the task is completed by them.

Thirdly – the reward should be proportionate to the task the follower has to complete. For example it would be disproportionate to reward an employee with a promotion for making a cup of tea. Similarly a follower would feel undervalued, if rewarded with a £5 gift voucher after they spent six months doing their managers job without a pay rise.

This type of power needs to be used carefully to prevent followers becoming accustomed to rewards and refusing to complete routine tasks without a reward. Generally rewards should not be offered, to follower employees to complete duties which are a normal part of their role. This is because as an employee they are under a contractual obligation to complete these tasks and they are already rewarded for this through their salary.

The other reason why rewards should be offered carefully, is that frequent use can reduce the impact or influence that offering a reward initially had on the follower. Followers will soon tire of the reward especially if the reward is small for example chocolates or flowers.

Coercive Power


This is the opposite of reward power because this power is based on the leader having control over what happens if followers do not act as required. If followers do not undertake the action required, the leader will impose a penalty. Penalties take a variety of forms including withdrawal of priviledges, job losses, verbal abuse, and delayed or loss of promotion. In all cases the leader will need to choose the penalty carefully to prevent breaking the law or being the subject of an employment tribunal.

Coercive power requires followers to believe that the leader has the ability to impose the stated penalty. Also the penalty has to be something that the followers do not want to have imposed on them. For example a penalty results in coffee being banned is unlikely to influence a tea drinker.

Finally (just as the reward in reward power should be proportional to the action taken by the follower), the penalty should be proportionate to the action not completed by the follower. For example it would be disproportionate to fire an employee follower the first time they do not return from their lunch break at the stated time. Similarly it is disproportionate to reduce the wages of an employee follower that hasn’t completed their duties over a six month period by £20 when their monthly pay is £1000.

Coercive powers should be used carefully; overuse can lead to unhappy employee followers. Unhappy followers can be negative or unmotivated, they may resign or adopt a “work to rule” attitude. Work to rule is where employees refuse to undertake any duties (or adopt working practices) that are not stated in their contract.

Legitimate Power


This is the power that a leader has when the followers believe that the leader has “a right” to instruct them and that they have an obligation to follow instructions. Sometimes legitimacy power is created by the leader’s job title (such as captain, doctor, or area manager), combined with the follower’s belief that the job title gives the leader the right to give them orders.

Referent Power


This is created when the followers believe that the leader possess qualities that they admire and would like to possess. The followers identify with their leader and attempt to copy their leader. As referent power is dependant on how the follower views the personality of their leader, a leader will not have referent power over every follower they lead. Some leaders will have referent power over just a few, whilst others such as Ghandi have lead millions through their personality and charisma.

Expert Power
As the title suggests a leader has expert power when the followers believe that the leader has “expert” knowledge or skills that are relevant to the job or tasks they have to complete. Often an experienced member of the team or staff in an organisation, can have expert power even though they are not a supervisor or manager.

Summary


As can be seen each of the powers is created by the followers belief, if the follower does not hold the requisite belief than then the leader is not able to influence them.

    * Reward power needs follower to believe leader will reward them.
    * Coercive power needs follower to believe leader will punish them.
    * Legitimate power needs follower to believe leader has right to instruct them.
    * Referent power need follower to believe leader has desirable qualities.
    * Expert power need follower to believe leader is an expert.

Whether the follower’s beliefs are correct is irrelevant, the beliefs alone will determine the type of power, a leader has over the follower.

Each of the leadership powers can be used by themselves or combined so that the leader has maximum influence. The leader will therefore need to think carefully about which power to use.

The use of one power could lead to a decrease in another for example coercive power (which necessitates the use of punishment) may decrease the leaders referent power , if it causes the followers to belief that the leader has qualities that aren’t admirable

Leadership v Management

Leadership and management are distinct concepts but the words are often used as though they have the same meaning. This confusion may arise from the fact that sometimes the same person is employed to do the job of leader and manager.

A leader’s job is to decide where the team they are leading is heading. A leader will set the ultimate aim, objective and goals for the team. They will then inspire and motivate the team to achieve the objectives set. This will involve reviewing progress and ensure that the team is on course to achieve the objectives set.

A manager’s job is to set how the team will achieve the objectives set by the leader. They will overcome any problems the team encounter and decide how to deal with complexity.

A simple way of illustrating the difference between leader and manager is to use the example of a team who are set the goal of building a path from point A to point B.

The leader’s job will be to

    * Set the goal of building a path.
    * Decide that the path will go from A to B.
    * Inspire and motivate the team so that they want to build a path for their leader.
    * Review progress as the path is built and ensure that the team are building the path from A to B.

The manager’s job will be to

    * Plan the project and decide things such as budgets, pay and materials used.
    * Implement plans and control building of the path.
    * Organise the team and delegate tasks to them.
    * Overcome any problems eg trees blocking the route where the path is to be built.
    *

Another way of differentiating a leader from a manager is to think of someone known as a world leader for example Martin Luther King and think about what they did. You will discover that each of these leaders are great visionaries, and are able to inspire and motivate their audience. They will present their ideas and dreams to the world in a way that they feel appeals to the audience. They will give them an overview of the vision and will not set the small details of how their vision will be achieved. Instead the small details will be decided by other people. Other people will plan and manage the work needed to achieve the leader’s vision. The leader’s job is to continue motivating and ensuring that project is on course to achieve it’s objectives

Management Styles

In many management text books the three most talked about management styles are democratic, autocratic and consultative. Selecting the correct management style may lead to greater motivation and productivity from your staff. However, it is not as easy as just 'picking' a style. Managers personalities and characteristics will influence the type of style adopted. For example a timid manager will find an autocratic management style difficult to adopt.

Democratic Management Style

A democratic manager delegates authority to his/her staff, giving them responsibility to complete the task given to them (also known as empowerment). Staff will complete the tasks using their own work methods. However, the task must be completed on time. Employees are involved in decision making giving them a sense of belonging and motivating individuals. Because staff feel a sense of belonging and are motivated the quality of decision making and work also improves. Although popular in business today, a democratic management style can slow decision making down because staff need to be consulted. Also some employees may take advantage of the fact that their manager is democratic by not working to their full potential and allowing other group members to 'carry' them.

Autocratic Management Style

In contrast to the above an autocratic manager dictates orders to their staff and makes decisions without any consultation. The leader likes to control the situation they are in. Decision are quick because staff are not consulted and work is usually completed on time. However this type of management style can decrease motivation and increase staff turnover because staff are not consulted and do not feel valued.

Consultative Management style

A consultative management style can be viewed as a combination of the above two. The manager will ask views and opinions from their staff, allowing them to feel involved but will ultimately make the final decision.

Laissez Faire Management style

A laisses faire manager sets the tasks and gives staff complete freedom to complete the task as they see fit. There is minimal involvement from the manager. The manager however does not sit idle and watch them work! He or she is there to coach or answer questions, supply information if required. There are benefits, staff again are developed to take responsibility which may lead to improved motivation. However with little direct guidance from the manager staff may begin to feel lost and not reach the goals originally set within the time frame.

Lyman W. Porter and Edward E. Lawler Expectancy Theory

Porter and Lawler used Victor Vroom’s expectancy theory as a foundation to develop their expectancy model. Similar to Vroom’s theory Porter and Lawler concluded that an individual’s motivation to complete a task is affected by the reward they expect to receive for completing the task. However Porter and Lawler introduced additional aspects to the expectancy theory.

Reward

Porter and Lawler categorised the reward as intrinsic and extrinsic

Intrinsic rewards are the positive feelings that the individual experiences from completing the task e.g. satisfaction, sense of achievement.

Extrinsic rewards are rewards emanating from outside the individual such as bonus, commission and pay increases.

Porter and Lawler’s model suggested that an individual’s view regarding the attractiveness and fairness of the rewards will affect motivation.

Ability & Perception

Porter and Lawler said that motivation is also affected by

   1. the individual’s ability to perform the task and
   2. their perception of the task

Renesis Likert

Dr Renesis Likert has studied human behaviour within many organisations.After extensive research, Dr. Rensis Likert concluded that there are four systems of management. According to Likert, the efficiency of an organisation or its departments is influenced by their system of management. Likert categorised his four management systems as follows;

Exploitive authoritative system (1)

In this type of management system the job of employees/subordinates is to abide by the decisions made by managers and those with a higher status than them in the organisation. The subordinates do not participate in the decision making. The organisation is concerned simply about completing the work. The organisation will use fear and threats to make sure employees complete the work set. There is no teamwork involved.

Benevolent authoritative system (2)

Just as in an exploitive authoritative system, decisions are made by those at the top of the organisation and management. However employees are motivated through rewards (for their contribution) rather than fear and threats. Information may flow from subordinates to managers but it is restricted to “what management want to hear”.

Consultative system (3)

In this type of management system, subordinates are motivated by rewards and a degree of involvement in the decision making process. Management will constructively use their subordinates ideas and opinions. However involvement is incomplete and major decisions are still made by senior management. There is a greater flow of information (than in a benevolent authoritative system) from subordinates to management. Although the information from subordinate to manager is incomplete and euphemistic.

Participative (group) system (4)

Management have complete confidence in their subordinates/employees. There is lots of communication and subordinates are fully involved in the decision making process. Subordinates comfortably express opinions and there is lots of teamwork. Teams are linked together by people, who are members of more than one team. Likert calls people in more than one group “linking pins”. Employees throughout the organisation feel responsible for achieving the organisation’s objectives. This responsibility is motivational especially as subordinates are offered economic rewards for achieving organisational goals which they have participated in setting.

Likerts Ideal System

Likert believes that if an organisation is to achieve optimum effectiveness then the “ideal” system to adopt is Participative (system 4).

Scientific Management

The theory of scientific management is the “brainchild” of Frederick Winslow Taylor. In its simplest form the theory is the belief that there is “one best way” to do a job and scientific methods can be used to determine that “one best way”.

Taylor developed his theory through observations and experience as a mechanical engineer. As a mechanical engineer Taylor noticed that the environment lacked work standards, bred inefficient workers and jobs were allocated to people without matching the job to the worker’s skill and ability. In addition to this the relationship of the workers with the managers included many confrontations.

Over a 20 year period Taylor devised the “one best way” to do each of the jobs on the shop floor. He then concluded that prosperity and harmony for both workers and managers could be achieved by following the 4 guidelines below:

   1. Develop a science for each element of an individual’s work, which will replace the old rule of thumb method.
      Scientifically select and then train, teach and develop the worker.
   2. Heartily cooperate with the workers so as to ensure that all work is done in accordance with the principles of the science that has been developed.
   3. Divide work and responsibility almost equally between management and workers.
   4. Management takes over all the work for which it is better fitted than the workers (rather than most of the work and responsibility being assigned to the workers).

A well known example of the scientific management theory is the pig iron experiment. Iron was loaded onto rail cars by workers each lot weighing 92 pounds and known as a “pig”. On average 12.5 tons were loaded onto the rail cars but Taylor believed that scientific management could be used to increase this to 47/48 tons per day. Through experimenting with various procedures and tools Taylor achieved this. This is how he did it:

    * Taylor ensured that he matched each of the jobs to each of the workers skills and abilities.
    * Taylor ensured that he provided the workers with the correct tools.
    * Taylor ensured that he provided workers with clear instructions about how to do each job. Taylor ensured that the workers understood the instructions and then Taylor ensured that the workers followed the instructions exactly as he had explained.
    * Taylor then created worker motivation by providing a significantly higher daily wage.

It is believed that through the use of scientific management Taylor increased productivity on the shop floor by 200 percent. Taylor’s ideas and thoughts were adopted throughout the world including in France, Russia and Japan. In today’s world scientific management has been merged with other ideas and is used by managers in the form of time and motion studies to eradicate wasted motions, incentive schemes based on performance and hiring the best qualified workers for each job.

David McClelland - Human Motivation Theory Continued

One of McClelland’s most well known theories is that human motivation, is dominated by three needs. McClelland's theory, sometimes referred to as the three need theory or as the learned needs theory, categorises the needs as follows;

the need for achievement ( N-Ach),

the need for power ( N-Pow) and

the need for affiliation ( N-Affil).

The importance of each of these needs will vary from one person to another. If you can determine the importance of each of these needs to an individual, it will help you decide how to influence that individual.

McClelland asserted that a person’s needs are influenced by their cultural background and life experiences. He also asserted that the majority of these needs can be classified as the needs for affiliation, achievement or power. A person’s motivation and effectiveness can be increased through an environment, which provides them with their ideal mix of each of the three needs (N-Ach, N-Pow and/or N-Affil).

The need for affiliation (N-Affil);

This is the need for friendly relationships and human interaction. There is a need “to feel liked” and “accepted” by others. A person with a high need for affiliation is likely to be a team player and thrive in a customer services environment. They will perform best in a co-operative environment. McClelland said that a strong need for affiliation will interfere with a manager’s objectivity. The “need to be liked” will affect a manager’s decisions, prompting them to make decisions to increase their popularity rather than furthering the interests of the organisation.

The need for power (N-Pow);

This is the need to lead others and make an impact.

This need can exhibit itself in two ways. The first which is the need for personal power may be viewed as undesirable as the person simply needs to feel that they have “power over others”. They don’t have to be effective or further the objectives of their employer.

The second type of “need for power” is the need for institutional power. People with the need for institutional power; want to direct the efforts of their team, to further the objectives of their organisation.

The need for achievement (N-Ach);

This is the need to achieve, excel and succeed. A person with this type of need, will set goals that are challenging but realistic. The goals have to be challenging so that the person can feel a sense of achievement. However the goals also have to be realistic as the person believes that when a goal is unrealistic, its achievement is dependant on chance rather than personal skill or contribution. This type of person prefers to work alone or with other high achievers. They do not need praise or recognition, achievement of the task is their reward.

A person with a “need for achievement” (N-Ach) needs regular job-related feedback so that they can review their progress and achievement. Feedback includes advancement in the person’s position in the organisation. Salary scale will also be viewed as measure of progress. The amount of salary is not about increasing wealth for a person with a high need for achievement. Instead this type of person is focusing on how their level of salary symbolises their progress and achievement.

McClelland believed that people with a strong need for achievement (N-Ach), make the best leaders for a variety of reasons including setting goals, reviewing progress and continuously looking at how things can be done better. However they may “expect too much” from their team as they believe that others have the same “need for achievement” which is often not the case.

Herzberg’s motivators and hygiene factors

Herzberg’s collection of information revealed that intrinsic factors are related to job satisfaction, whilst extrinsic factors created job dissatisfaction. In other words when people felt satisfied and happy at work the conditions present were directly affecting their inner feelings and self esteem. Yet dissatisfaction was created by the job environment people worked in and the interactions within that environment. Click on the following link for a detailed list of each of the intrinsic and extrinsic factors. (Herberg)

This theory can be related to McClellands three need theory. N-Arch people are interested in intrinsic job factors such as achievement, advancement and growth. Whilst extrinsic factors are important to N-Affil individuals, extrinsic factors such as personal life and relationship with supervisor, peers and subordinates.

McGregor’s XY Theory

It is believed that achievement-motivated people are more likely to apply theory X (authoritarian management style).This is because achieving the task is their main focus. Whilst N-Affil managers are likely to apply theory Y as people’s opinion of them is important to them. N-Pow managers are believed to apply theory X because they have a need for power; either to feel personal power or to progress organisational objectives.

Expectancy Theory

The focus of Vroom’s “Expectancy Theory” is that an employee’s motivation to complete a task is influenced by their personal views regarding:

1. The probability of completing the task and
2. The possible outcome or consequence of completing the task.

Expectancy Theory states that, individuals make decisions, which they believe will lead to reward or reduce the likelihood of pain. The ultimate goal does not matter, the important factor is the impact that achieving the goal will have on the individual. An individual’s opinion is formed by a combination of three factors which Vroom categorised as follows

1. Expectancy – Does the individual believe that they can achieve the task
2. Valence – Does the individual believe that completing the task will benefit them or           cause detriment.
3. Instrumentality – What is the probability of completing the task leading to an outcome     desired by the individual

1. Expectancy (Subjective Probability)

Expectancy is the individual’s belief about whether they can achieve the task. This view will be influenced by a number of things including

- The type of skills needed for the task,
- Support expectations of co-workers and line managers,
- Type of equipment/materials and
- Availability of pertinent information.

Another factor influencing expectancy is previous experience. If the task has been successfully completed in the past then expectancy will be high but if the task has failed in the past or was difficult to perform then expectancy will be low.

• There is a positive correlation between efforts and performance,
• Favourable performance will result in a desirable reward,
• The reward will satisfy an important need,
• The desire to satisfy the need is strong enough to make the effort worthwhile

Eg. A task measured as 0.75 is believed to be more achievable than one measured as 0.45 If an individual feels that they can achieve the task then expectancy is measured as 1. On the other hand if they feel that the task can not be completed then expectancy is measured a 0. If the individual feels that the task may be achievable then it will be categorised between 0 and 1.

2. Valency

Valency measures how much an individual wants the consequences of completing the task. If task completion, leads to an outcome desired by the individual, than valence is positive. Examples of positive valence are praise, promotion, recognition and pay rises.

On the other hand if the individual believes that completing the task will lead to something they don’t want then valence for the task is negative. Examples of negative valence are tiredness, wet clothes, redundancies and boredom.

3. Instrumentality

Instrumentality focuses on the probability of securing the desired outcome, following successful completion of the task.

Probability 1 – achievement of task will lead to second outcome ie desired outcome
Probability 0 – achievement of task will not lead to second outcome ie desired outcome.
Probability between 0 and 1 – There is a chance that completion of the task will lead to the desired outcome. The higher the number, the more the individual believes that they will be rewarded with the desired outcome following completion of the task.

Employees will put in more effort if they believe that performing well, will lead to a desired outcome. Performance related pay (PRP) initiatives centre on instrumentality. However, it is unlikely that PRPs will be successful, unless employees believe that their pay, will increase in line with high performance.

Mathematical Relationship

Vroom said that the valence and expectancy and motivation are linked through the following equation:

Force (Motivation) = Valence x Expectancy

Force is the effort that an individual puts into a task.

Example

In the example below employee A and B’s task is to achieve targets and the desired outcome of achieving targets is a pay rise.

	Valence (V) ie Desired outcome	Expectancy (E) ie employee’s assessment how likely it is that the task will be achieved	V X E = F Ie valency multipled by expectancy	F ie Force which is the employees’s motivation
Employee A	The employee believes that the outcome is very attractive. = 0.8	As past performance is poor, employee assessed the task as difficult to achieve = 0.2	0.8 x 0.2 = F	F = 0.16
Employee B	The employee believes that the outcome is relatively attractive. =0.6	As past performance is reasonable, employee assessed the task as reasonably achievable = 0.6	0.6 X 0.6 = F	F = 0.36

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